Utilitarianism Notes Essay Example for Free

Utilitarianism Notes Essay – – – – – – – No Absolutes Morality Depends on individual circumstances Happiness is the most important thing Quality and Quantity of Happiness need to be taken into account The Measure of Usefulness or Fittingness for purpose an action may have Teleological Ethical theories such as Utilitarianism tend to rely on the principle of utility It is the way of measuring how useful an action is in bringing about the consequences that we desire Equality The Happiness of each individual person is equally important No Persons happiness is more important than anothers You can work out the right action mathematically. Not absolute rules but we would all make the same decision under the circumstances. No rules. Principles are used to govern right and wrong rather than rules in Act Utilitarianism In Rule Utilitarianism, J. S. Mill introduced some beneficial rules, which acted as guidelines Hedonistic Principle of Utility †¢ Egalitarian – – – †¢ †¢ †¢ Hedonistic Calculus – – – – Anti-Legalistic Harm Principle – – Put forward by Mill to avoid restricting the freedom of the minority. It states that each person can do whatever they want, as long as it does not negatively impact on the freedom of other people Teleological Ethics. †¢ In order to understand Utilitarianism, you must first study Teleological Ethics, which share many principles with Utilitarianism. †¢ Teleological Ethics is to judge whether or not an action is moral by purely looking at the result or consequence of the action. †¢ This is also known as Consequentialism. Teleological Ethics †¢ In Teleological Ethics, there are no moral absolutes. †¢ Teleological Ethics only consider the consequence of an action, and disregard the motive or circumstances. †¢ Teleological Theories are consequentialist (based on consequences) †¢ Actions only have Instrumental Value, not intrinsic value. (see table below to see definitions) Problems with Teleological Ethics †¢ How do you decide what a morally good or bad consequence is? †¢ There are many conflicting factors †¢ We cant tell the future, we have no way of knowing what the consequences will be! The Principle of Utility †¢ Teleological Ethical theories tend to rely on the Principle of Utility †¢ This is defined as the measure of usefulness or fittingness for purpose an action may have †¢ A Principle of Utility is a way of measuring how useful an action is in bringing about the consequences that we desire †¢ The Principle of Utility of Utilitarianism is Happiness. This is for the following reasons: – It is universally valued and desirable – Subjective (opinion matters) – However, it is also open to abuse as it cannot be easily defined. †¢ This links to Hedonism Hedonism †¢ Hedonism is the belief that happiness is more important than anything else †¢ Pleasure or happiness are often interchangeable and used to mean the same thing â€Å"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as what we shall do. † -David Hume Before Utilitarianism. †¢ Hume linked Utility with Happiness †¢ It is difficult to define Happiness †¢ Aristotle saw no difference between living well (flourishing) and living normally. Well being is part of the good life. This can include comfort and enjoyment Act Utilitarianism Act Utilitarianism is the earliest form of Utilitarianism. It was first put forward by scholar Jeremy Bentham †¢ Act Utilitarianism is a Relativist theory, which means that nothing is always right or wrong and the choice of actions depend on circumstances, which allows flexibility and is intuitive. †¢ It also rejects God, as there is no proof as to whether or not God exists. It also rejects the Bible and religion in general. This removes the need for faith which makes it a theory that can be supported by both religious and secular people. †¢ There are no absolute rules in Act Utilitarianism, which means that there is no unfairness and is a more flexible theory. This makes the people more important than the rules. †¢ Act Utilitarianism uses a Hedonic Calculus to work out the right action for people to do. This creates a simple, objective, mathematical, tangible and logical way of working out what is right and wrong. †¢ It is also a Hedonistic theory, this means that happiness is more important than anything else. This is good because we all agree that happiness is good, and an objective base for morality (meaning of life) which fits in well with modern society. â€Å"The good is that which will bring about the greatest sum of pleasure and the least sum of pain for the greatest number† -Jeremy Bentham Hedonic Calculus. †¢ The Hedonic Calculus is a formula that can be used to work out the right action mathematically †¢ It is simple, objective, mathematical, logical and tangible. †¢ The Hedonic Calculus uses the following factors to establish the presence of happiness: Rule Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism superseded Benthams Act Utilitarianism. It was put forward by scholar John Stuart Mill, who had learned about Utilitarianism for most of his life, as his father James Mill was a colleague of Jeremy Bentham. Rule Utilitarianism. †¢ Mill argued that not all forms of happiness or pleasure were of equal value, which was seemingly what Bentham was implying †¢ He also recognised that, in life, it is easy to settle for the more immediate and sensual pleasures, rather than the nobler and more refined ones. †¢ Mill goes beyond the Hedonic Calculus of Act Utilitarianism by recognising that there are many different ways of assessing its value †¢ Mill was concerned to link his utilitarian theory with Jesus teachings by claiming that to love your neighbour as yourself constitutes the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality. †¢ Mill also suggested a positive place for rules within an overall utilitarian approach. His one rule that he introduced was known as the Harm Principle it stated that everyone should be able to do what would make them happy, unless the majority of people affected, are negatively affected. †¢ Mill stated that general rules such as the Harm Principle should be obeyed as they give overall benefit to society, but they can be broken in exceptional circumstances. â€Å"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied† -John Stuart Mill. Strong and Weak Rule Utilitarianism †¢ Strong Rule Utilitarianism holds that one should never break a rule that is established on utilitarian principles †¢ Weak Rule Utilitarianism holds that there may be situations where breaking the rules is acceptable, in order to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number, but generally keeping the rules (eg. Telling a lie is generally wrong, but there may be circumstances where it acceptable in order to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number). Rule Utilitarianism Preference Utilitarianism †¢ Preference Utilitarianism superseded Mills Rule Utilitarianism. It was put forward by several scholars, who advocated it over a period of time. †¢ They are: – Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900) – R. M. Hare (1919-2002) – Peter Singer (1946-present) †¢ Preference Utilitarianism uses Preference over Happiness or Pleasure as the Principle of Utility. †¢ Preference Utilitarianism also takes other factors into account, such as duty †¢ This means that most people would get what they wanted. Prima Facie Obligations †¢ â€Å"Prima Facie† – At First Sight †¢ This is the idea that we do not value strangers as highly as friends or family †¢ Most of us judge morality as ‘agent relatve’, we will favour some people above others. †¢ Utilitarianism requires us to judge all people equally and not consider Prima Facie obligations †¢ This is a criticism of Utilitarianism as to abandon prima facie duties seems to go against all instinct †¢ Some people argue that people should be treated as ends in themselves and not means to an end. †¢ It is necessary for a utilitarian to defend against this position. Motive Utilitarianism †¢ Henry Sidgwick put forward a theory of Utilitarianism which became known as ‘Motive Utilitarianism’ †¢ It states an action can be considered to be good if its motive was to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number, regardless of the actual outcome (which links to Situation Ethics).

Is There Any Solace For The Lonely :: essays research papers

Is There Any Solace For The Lonely? Our culture is too civilized to allow the physical torture of criminals. Therefore, solitary confinement is used as an alternative punishment for prisoners serving time. Solitary confinement seems like a joke, being alone in an enclosed room with no human contact for a few weeks. Yet, being alienated and lonely are very effective methods of psychological torture. In fact, the sense of loneliness is so overwhelming, it tends to drive criminals mad. The problem with loneliness is that it does not just affect prisoners in solitary, it can overwhelm anyone at anytime. What was once an emotional state of being that only afflicted the elderly, is now commonplace for the youth of tomorrow. Many are looking for deeper insight about the causes of loneliness in adolescents, which is defined as a "sense of absence or loss even in the midst of a crowd" (Jain 1). The best source for a greater understanding about loneliness is poet, Brian Brennan. His poem "Under Solace Tree&qu ot; reveals how social gauntlets and adolescent alienation are the primary causes of loneliness. Social gauntlets are the primary differentiation between adult and teenage loneliness. Adults are not as likely to undertake social "tests" to try and fit in. Older individuals usually have discovered who they are and accept it. The problem with youngsters is that they are still looking for acceptance and a sense of belonging. As a result, the "in-crowd" develops unspoken tests and tribulations for newcomers who wish to join. Such trials could be as discreet as being a good athlete, in order to be accepted into the "jock" crowd. On the other hand, "burn-outs" would not trust you, or even remotely invite you into their "club" if you refused to smoke marijuana with them. Social gauntlets are used to weed out those that are deemed "not worthy" to join, from those that are. When a new member is accepted, it acts like an ego boost for that individual, thereby increasing their self-esteem. Although, the self-image boost lasts only as long as the group, leaving the youth worse off than before when it disperses, because now they have sacrificed their independence for acceptance. On the other hand, failing to pass social gauntlets will have detrimental effects on the flunky. It will cause loneliness, the feeling of an ache more painful than any physical wound (Jain 2).

Ready Set Red Light

Red light runners cause hundreds of deaths and tens of thousands of injuries each year. In 2009, 676 people were killed and an estimated 130,000 were injured in crashes that involved red light running. About half of the deaths in red light running crashes are pedestrians, bicyclists, and occupants in other vehicles who are hit by the red light runners. An Institute study of urban crashes found that those involving drivers who ran red lights, stop signs and other traffic controls were the most common type of crash (22 percent). Injuries occurred in 39 percent of the crashes in which motorists ran traffic controls. Enforcement is the key to getting people to comply with a law, but communities don't have the resources to allow police to patrol intersections as often as would be needed to ticket all motorists who run red lights. Studies have shown that the presence of cameras reduces red light running. If a vehicle enters an intersection any time after the signal light has turned red, the driver has committed a violation. Motorists inadvertently in an intersection when the signal changes are not red light runners. In locations where a right turn on red is permitted, drivers who fail to come to a complete stop before turning may be considered red light runners. However, communities differ as to whether they issue tickets for it when it is caught on camera. A study conducted during several months at 5 busy intersections in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, prior to the use of red light cameras found that, on average, a motorist ran a red light every 20 minutes at each intersection. During peak travel times, red light running was more frequent. Analysis of red light violation data from 19 intersections without red light cameras in 4 states found that 1,775 violations occurred over 554 hours, for a violation rate of 3. 2 per hour per intersection. In a 2010 telephone survey by the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 93 percent of drivers said it's unacceptable to go through a red light if it's possible to stop safely, but one-third reported doing so in the past 30 days.

How Do Humans Reproduce?

The reproduction in human beings differs from other living things because we are complex organisms. Unlike bacteria, the simplest living things, our reproduction involves a male and female to mate. For bacteria, normally it is asexual, meaning there is no need for a male and female partner to mate. A single bacterium, which is single one celled organism, can divide into two new one celled organism. This process of cell division is called mitosis for most one celled organism or binary fission for prokaryotic cells.As female and male human being mate, the egg of a female becomes fertilized by the sperm of the male. Although arthropods like grasshoppers also mate, the egg of a grasshopper contains a little yolk to support the egg cell when it develops after fertilization. Since the yolk is small, several germ cells contained in a single egg support the primary germ cell providing nourishment after fertilization. Human eggs do not have yolk, after fertilization the developing baby is nou rish by the mother through the umbilical cord.Another group of animals living in the water also differ from human egg. Unlike land dwelling animals, aquatic animals like fish have their eggs in water were the exchange of nutrients and waste is easy to achieve. Therefore some fish eggs do not have much yolk to support the embryo during development. Although unlike human egg, they normally have gelatinous materials that cover the egg and provide additional nourishment. To humans this is the reason why we have amniotic fluids to allow nutrients to enter our body and waste to come out.Even our closest relatives, the bear which is a mammal, still differ from our reproduction. In female human beings, normally only one egg can be fertilized at one time. This is because only one egg is released by the ovary during the ovulation period. For bear one or more eggs can be fertilized at a time producing typically 4 to 5 cubs. When the human egg is fertilized it forms a zygote that undergoes a 9 month gestation period before coming out as a young baby. References Materials provided by student.

The Executive Office of the U.S. President essays

The Executive Office of the U.S. President essays Within the last decade, the Office of the President of the United States Federal Government, part of the triad of the Executive, Legislative (US Congress) and Judicial (the Supreme Court) branches, has come under fire, due to the views of some Americans who consider the Executive branch to be far less important than the other two. However, the Office of the President of the United States bears much responsibility for the ways things are decided related to American society and how the laws of the land are interpreted and acted upon in times of great prosperity and economic/political turmoil (McCague, 56). Generally, the Executive branch of the U.S. government is responsible for enforcing the laws of the land and was originally created during the Presidency of George Washington in the late 1700s. Much like other entities, this office could not function properly if not for the presence of other entities, such as the Vice President, department heads (i.e., those who run and operate cabinet departments) and a number of independent agencies. Unlike the powers of the President, the responsibilities of these adjunct bodies are not defined in the Constitution, yet each has special powers and functions (Executive Branch, Internet). Basically, the President is the unconditional leader and representative of the country and its citizens and also serves as the Commander-in-Chief of all military bodies, federal organizations and military-based operations, much like George Washington when he served as the Commander of the colonial forces during the Revolutionary War. The Vice President, usually appointed by the President, serves as the President of the U.S. Senate and if the President suddenly dies or resigns from office, the Vice President automatically becomes Commander-in-Chief. As to cabinet departments, these are almost always led by individuals appointed by the President during his (...

Eurasian Badger Facts

Eurasian Badger Facts The Eurasian badger or European badger (Meles meles) is a social, omnivorous mammal that resides in woodlands, pastures, suburbs, and urban parks throughout most of Europe and Asia. In Europe, the badgers are also known by several common names including brock, pate, grey, and bawson. Fast Facts: Eurasian Badger Scientific Name: Meles melesCommon Name(s): Eurasian badger, European badger, Asian badger. In Europe: brock, pate, grey, and bawsonBasic Animal Group: Mammal  Ã‚  Size: 22–35 inches longWeight: Females weigh between 14.5–30 pounds, males are 20–36 poundsLifespan: 6 yearsDiet:  OmnivoreHabitat: Europe and AsiaPopulation: Worldwide unknown; range size variesConservation Status: Least Concern; considered Endangered in Albania Description Eurasian badgers are powerfully built mammals that have a short, fat body and short, sturdy legs well suited for digging. The bottoms of their feet are naked and they have strong claws that are elongated with a sharp end honed for excavation. They have small eyes, small ears, and a long head. Their skulls are heavy and elongated and they have oval braincases. Their fur is grayish and they have black faces with white stripes on the top and sides of their face and neck. Badgers range in body length from about 22–35 inches, with a tail extending another 4.5 to 20 inches. Females weigh between 14.5–30 pounds, while males weigh from 20–36 pounds. DamianKuzdak/Getty Images Species Once thought to be a single species, some researchers split them into subspecies which are similar in appearance and behavior but have different ranges. Common badger (Meles meles meles)Cretan badger (Meles meles arcalus)Trans Caucasian badger (Meles meles canascens)Kizlyar badger (Meles meles heptneri)Iberian badger (Meles meles marianensis)Norwegian badger (Meles meles milleri)Rhodes badger (Meles meles rhodius)Fergana badger (Meles meles severzovi) Habitat European badgers are found throughout the British Isles, Europe, and Scandinavia. Their range extends westward to the Volga River. West of the Volga River, Asian badgers are common. They are most often studied as a group and referred to in the scholarly press simply as Eurasian badgers. Eurasian badgers prefer deciduous woods with clearings or open pastureland with small patches of wood. They are also found in a wide variety of temperate ecosystems, mixed and coniferous woodlands, scrub, suburban areas, and urban parks. Subspecies are found in mountains, plains, and even semi-deserts. Territory ranges vary depending on food availability and so reliable population estimates are not currently available. Diet Eurasian badgers are omnivores. They are opportunistic foragers that consume fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns and cereal crops, as well as invertebrates such as earthworms, insects, snails, and slugs. They also eat small mammals such as rats, voles, shrews, moles, mice, and rabbits. When available, they will also feed on small reptiles and amphibians such as frogs, snakes, newts, and lizards. The badgers forage alone even when involved in a social group: Eurasian badgers live in territorial, mixed-sex social colonies each sharing a communal burrow. The animals are nocturnal and spend much of the daylight hours hidden away in their setts. Behavior Eurasian badgers are social animals that live in colonies of six to 20 individuals made up of multiple males, breeding and non-breeding females, and cubs. The groups create and reside in a network of underground tunnels known as a sett or den. Some setts are large enough to house more than a dozen badgers and can have tunnels that are as much as 1,000 feet long with numerous openings to the surface. Badgers excavate their setts in well-drained soils that are easy to dig in. The tunnels are 2–6 feet beneath the surface of the ground and the badgers often construct large chambers where they sleep or care for their young. When digging tunnels, badgers create large mounds outside the entryway. By placing entrances on slopes, the badgers can push the debris down the hill and away from the opening. They do the same when cleaning out their sett, pushing bedding material and other waste out and away from the opening. Groups of badgers are known as colonies and each colony may construct and use several different setts throughout their territory. The setts they use depend on the distribution of food resources within their territory as well as whether or not it is breeding season and young are to be raised in the sett. Setts or sections of setts not used by badgers are sometimes occupied by other animals such as foxes or rabbits. Like bears, badgers experience winter sleep during which time they become less active but their body temperature does not drop as it does in full hibernation. In late summer, badgers begin to gain the weight they will need to power themselves through their winter sleep period. Reproduction Eurasian badgers are polygynous, meaning males mate with multiple females but females only mate with one male. Within social groups, however, only the dominant male and female mate. Dominant females are known to kill cubs from non-dominant females in the social group. Badgers can mate year round, but most commonly in late winter through early spring and late summer through early fall. At times, males expand their territories to cross-breed with extra-group females. Gestation lasts between 9 and 21 months and litters produce 1–6 cubs at a time; females are fertile during pregnancy so multiple paternity births are common. Cubs first emerge from their dens after eight to 10 weeks and are weaned by the age of 2.5 months. They are sexually mature at about a year old, and their lifespans are typically six years, although the oldest known wild badger lived to 14. TonyBaggett/Getty Images Threats European badgers do not have many predators or natural enemies. In some parts of their range, wolves, dogs, and lynxes pose a threat. In some areas, Eurasian badgers live side-by-side other predators such as foxes without conflict. The IUCN Red List comments that since Eurasian badgers occur in many protected areas and there are high densities found in anthropogenic habitats in large parts of its range, the Eurasian badger is highly unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing even as Near Threatened. They are targeted for hunting for food or persecuted as a pest, and in some urban and suburban areas, the population has decreased. Although estimates are unreliable, researchers believe the overall population has been increasing throughout their range since the 1980s. During the mid-1990s, the Badgers were classed Lower Risk/least concern (LR/LC) because of elevated occurrence of rabies and tuberculosis, although those diseases have since decreased substantially. Sources Carpenter, Petra J., et al. Mating System of the Eurasian Badger. Molecular Ecology 14.1 (2005): 273-84. Print.,Meles Meles, in a High Density Populationda Silva, Jack, David W. MacDonald, and Peter G. H. Evans. Net Costs of Group Living in a Solitary Forager, the Eurasian Badger (Meles meles). Behavioral Ecology 5.2 (1994): 151-58. Print.Frantz, A. C., et al. Reliable Microsatellite Genotyping of the Eurasian Badger (Meles Meles) Using Faecal DNA. Molecular Ecology 12.6 (2003): 1649-61. Print.Frantz, Alain C., et al. Estimating Population Size by Genotyping Remotely Plucked Hair: The Eurasian Badger. Journal of Applied Ecology 41.5 (2004): 985-95. Print.Kranz, A., A.V. Abramov, J. Herrero, and T. Maran. Meles meles. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.T29673A45203002, 2016.  Wang, A. Eurasian badgers (Meles meles). Animal Diversity, 2011.

Leadership Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Leadership - Research Paper Example The approach did not go well as his boss discouraged the idea claiming that the company dealt with the production of UV lamps. The boss claimed that the 3D printers were replicators of â€Å"Star Trek† which the company could not spend on. Chuck hull however did not give up and kept on insisting to the boss that he be given the permission to make the machine. Eventually, they both reached a compromise, which stated that Chuck would concentrate in the making of the company’s lamps during daytime while at night concentrate on making his 3D printer(Lipson, et al 49). The UV lights manufactured at the company mainly influenced the idea of the 3D machine. Factories would use the lamps to harden plastic veneers onto rubber tiles or tabletops. With this in mind, Hull discovered that the UV light could be used to engrave plastic layers. The plastic layer’s etching would be into whatever shape he deemed attractive. The layers would be stalked forming a 3D object. At the initial stages however, he wrote codes that guided the machines on cutting the layers (Lipson, et al 65). Chuck Hull’s success was not mainly because of his invention but also due to the leadership styles and qualities he possessed and practiced. Both internal and external drivers influenced his leadership qualities and styles. One external driver is the situational interaction that came about while talking to his boss. The two were close as they worked in the same company and this gave him the opportunity of telling and convincing his boss about the idea. Had he not been in a situation where he would convince the boss about the 3D printer, he would never have gotten the chance to use the company’s resources to come up with the printer. Another external driver is the function role (Sadler & Philip 76). He used to work in a UV lamps manufacturing company and this made him to realize that the UV